Native American Culture Facts

SYNDICATE 7 } } Bottlenecks in the processing system at RP1 Excessive truck-waiting time and costs annoying the berry growers Excessive labour costs Poor berry grading system } } Wet Berries 58% System throughput rate : 1200 bbls/hr Wet Berries 70% System throughput rate : 1050 bbls/hr Wet Berries 70%, with a Dryer? System throughput rate : 1200 bbls/hr 3500 3000 2500 Berries (bbls) 2000 58% Wet Berries, 11am Start 70% Wet Berries, 11am Start 70% Wet Berries, 7am Start 1500 1000 70% Wet Berries, 7am Start, 1 Dryer 500 -8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 20-21 21-22 22-23 23-00 00-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 Time (24-hour) 0 Options No. Of Hours Trucks wait No. Of barrels waiting in the truck (bbls) 1 Truck Capacity (bbls) Total truck waiting time (hrs. ) Average Truck waiting time (minutes) % Change in waiting time Cost per hour/per truck/per day Harvest season truck waiting cost (106 days) % Change in peak-season Truck waiting costs 58% Wet Berries -11am Start 12 hours 16000 75 213. 34 53 – $ 100 2,260,980 – 70% Wet Berries -11am Start 15 hours 40600 75 541. 34 135 Reference level $ 100 $ 5,738,204 Reference level 70% Wet Berries -7am Start 7 hours 9500 75 127 32 -76. 3% $ 100 $ 1,346,200 -76. 5% 70% Wet Berries -7am Start, with 1 Dryer 0 hours 0 75 0 0 -100% 75 0 -100% 5000 4500 4000 3500 Berries (bbls) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Start 11am- 70% Wet Berries Start 7am- 70% Wet Berries, 1 Dryer Start 7am- 70% Wet Berries Start 11am- 58% Wet Berries 7-8 8-9 9-10 10-11 11-12 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17 17-18 18-19 19-20 0-21 21-22 22-23 23-00 00-1 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9 Time (24-hour) Savings: 70% Wet 11am Costs/ 70% Wet Berries, Berries, 11am Alternatives    7am Start, 2 shifts start v/s Start, 1 shift 7am start 70% Wet Berries, 7am Start with 1 dryer, 2 shifts Savings: 7am start with 1 Dryer over 7 am start with no dryer Equipment Truck Waiting Labour Total Costs $ 0 $57,38,204 $5,66,645. 71 $63,04,849. 7 1 $ 0 $13,46,200 $5,13,948. 57 $18,60,148. 57 77% 9% 70% $ 60,000. 00 $ 0 $4,99,229. 71 $5,59,229. 71 100% 3% 70% }Start Operations at 7am with 2 work-shifts Truck waiting time reduces to 32min on average and costs by 76. 5% Labour costs decrease by 9% } Invest in One Dryer Truck waiting goes down to zero and thus no truck waiting costs Labour costs reduce a further 3% †¢? Buy the Light Meter System Helps save $ 318,410 in the first season itself } Going forward, invest in increasing the capacity of the Drying system to 1200bbls/hr as proportion of wet berries increases. This will help avoid labour and truck waiting costs

Environmental Conflicts In Literature

Conflicts are a very prominent element in literature. If you were to look up the dictionary definition of conflict, you would find that it is a struggle, controversy, or fight. Conflicts can take many forms, and each has its own place in literature. Environmental conflicts are certainly one of the more recognized and appreciated types of conflicts. They are easy to identify, understand, and analyze. An environment can be described as ones surroundings, so logically, an environmental conflict is a conflict with ones surroundings. Environmental conflicts pit man against a greater power, and it is unsure what will happen next. Throughout [good] literature, a vast array of environmental conflicts can be found. Let us take a look at Leiningen Versus the Ants, by Carl Stephenson. In this story, environmental conflicts are exceedingly prevalent. In fact, the entire story is built upon the act of God that Leiningen faces. A twenty square mile army of ants threatens Leiningens plantation and his life. The ants prove to be a formidable opponent, even for a man of such cunning as Leiningen. They represent the power and unpredictability of naturea perfect example of an environmental conflict. Not all environmental conflicts are huge, apocalyptic, catastrophic events. They can be as simple or commonplace as a tree falling. Such is the case in The Interlopers, by Saki. Saki recognizes the power of nature, and makes use of something so unimportant as a fallen tree to trap Ulrich and Georg beneath it, and dramatically alter the course of the entire story. Not only that, but at the end of the story, Saki uses wolves to change the direction of the story once more, and this time he creates some irony as well. In almost all cases, the environment does triumph over man in some way or another. To Build a Fire, by Jack London is a prime example of this happening to a large extent. A man and his dog are lost in the wilderness at sub-zero temperatures, and he is not only involved in an environmental conflict, but a struggle to live. Eventually the man dies of hypothermia. Again, this is another instance that illustrates the power that nature has over us. Ironically, (as if to drive the point home) the mans dog survives. It is safe to say that environmental conflicts are a truly wonderful and important addition to the literary world. They give the reader a sense of awe toward nature and its power. We cannot predict what nature will do, nor can we deny its supremacy. Because of this, environmental conflicts are often more captivating and suspenseful than other types, and we find a great deal of enjoyment and entertainment from them.

Rape Shield Laws Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rape Shield Laws - Research Paper Example Center of discussion in this paper are rape shield laws, court rules or statutes which limit the defendant’s counsel ability to introduce the sexual history, past conduct or reputation of the accuser or victim as evidence during a trial relating to rape. Therefore, rape shield laws can prevent the victim from being discredited by the irrelevant information to the defendant’s innocence or guilt. In the United States, each state and the District of Columbia has a rape shield law applying to criminal cases and a few to civil cases. Rape shield laws apply to both state and federal criminal and civil cases except the certain limited circumstances, such as when the accuser’s consent can be illustrated or when the accused and the accuser have a shared history. Also, the defense may be required to prove that such evidence’s exclusion would amount to violation of constitutional rights of the defendants. Most of these laws were adopted in a bid to combat the practic e where the victims are discredited through introduction of irrelevant information concerning their reputation, sexual history or chastity. Most of these laws were adopted in the 1970s; the first rape shield law was passed in the state of Michigan in 1974 and since then all states have enacted one. Even though these laws were popular in the US, they were criticized for violating the rights of the defendant to confront the accuser as enshrined in the Sixth Amendment. It has also been criticized for being overly arduous for the defense, as well as violating civil liberties like the freedom of speech. (Flowe et al, 2007). So, what do rape shield laws do? Commonly, rape shield laws bar the introduction of reputation and opinion regarding the sexual history of the accuser. Additionally, they prove that evidence about victim’s specific sexual conduct is supposedly irrelevant unless such evidence is direct source of disease, pregnancy, or injury that may be an issue in the case, or has relation to particular sexual conduct with the defendant (The National Centre for Victims of Crime, 2011). Rape shield laws in eleven states have an exception which is known a â€Å"catch-all† which allows the judge to permit the introduction of evidence of any nature, even those that are normally barred by rape shield laws, if it is necessary to introduce that evidence in order to protect the accused constitutional rights. Various rape shield laws allow the judge to decide if the evidence in question is relevant or not. If it is relevant, the judge determines whether the evidence’s potential prejudicial impact outweighs its relevance, or not. Rape shield laws are relevant in the criminal justice system as they guard against the introduction of irrelevant evidence of the innocence or guilt of the defendant, but which can potentially prejudice the jury against the accuser or the victim (The National Centre for Victims of Crime, 2011). Flowe et al (2007) explain that rape shield laws are important to the victims as they help in ensuring that the rape victims are treated with respect, dignity, and fairness during criminal trial by making sure that the victim is not subject to a public airing about his or her past conduct, sexual reputation, and any other information which might be irrelevant. More importantly, rape shield laws increase the possibility that victims will report rape cases as they will be more likely to come forward to report. If the sexual history of the victims would have been examined or revealed in court as part of rape trial, it is very likely that victims will not report the rape cases with increasing regularity. However, it should be noted that rape shield laws only guard against the introduction of evidence or irrelevant information during trial, but do not protect the victims from publicity prior to the trial. This may probably deter many victims from reporting rape cases. Rape shield laws have been credited for the decrea sing

Toni Morrison the Book Sula and the Symbol of Water Essay

Toni Morrison the Book Sula and the Symbol of Water - Essay Example Speaking more literally, water is used in the novel to symbolize the border between the sexuality and the experience of death around. First of all, the main character of Sula was taken by Morrison to directly outline the link between the heroine and water. The question is that sula is a sea bird. Thus, water is inseparable for Sula of the novel. Along with the place they lived in (Bottom), the whole story underlines the bottom of heaven where Sula and Nel were placed for living together. The black people living in Medallion tend to justify what everything was all about along with â€Å"what that little girl Sula who grew into a woman in their town was all about, and what they themselves were all about, tucked up there in the Bottom† (Morrison 6). It is a mystery for the main character why their philosophy of living is trite by the majority. Conversely, Sula’s own feelings seek to be evident as long as she feels love, passion, and responsibility for her neighbors deep wi thin her heart. To say more, the theme of budding sexuality in keeping with the best traditions of the Modernism in literature is explored through the symbol of water. Sula and Nel are interwoven into a play they once started in their childhood and continue, though Nel is married to Jude. The sexual intercourse between Sula and Jude is a manifestation of their wetness and soft nature of the water itself. However, it is vital to turn back in earlier times when Nel and Sula were playing with their holes. One episode is peculiar when they stand together â€Å"gazing out over the swift dull water as an unspeakable restlessness and agitation held them† (Morrison 59). It is an intimate dimension of their lives. Water seems to keep Nel and Sula’s feelings in secret until the moment comes. Water is taken in the novel to describe Sula’s personal shelter from the eyes of the surrounding people likely to blame her. In fact, the river setting is a symbol of people falling i n oblivion once the death has come in their lives. At several points water is a symbol of death (Davis 91). The most applicable examples when it is treated like that are the death of Chicken Little and Sula herself. Here comes a contradiction between themes of sexuality leading to birth and oblivion characterizing death. Here, Morrison exemplified the struggle of African Americans: â€Å"Water that should cleanse and purify instead leads to a clogging of human emotions, a beaver’s dam on the souls of the two girls† (Bloom 130). Thus, sexuality symbolized by means of water is intersected by the images of death incorporated in the smoothness of water. Toni Morrison draws upon the symbolic meaning of water trying to amplify the hardships African Americans experience in Medallion. In this respect one of the places in the book reads as follows: â€Å"With the first crack and whoosh of water, the clamber to get out was so fierce that others who were trying to help were pull ed to their deaths† (Morrison 162). Thereupon, water is classified in the imaginary world created by Morrison as both the beginning and the end for all those inhabitants living in the Bottom. Thus, Sula’s tears and her weeping at different places in the book provide a reader with the feeling of sorrow. Nevertheless, the other side of the story is that Sula seeks to find out her niche under the sun, even though the water reminds her of the

Analyse Guy Debords idea of the society of the spectacle. Does the Essay

Analyse Guy Debords idea of the society of the spectacle. Does the concept seem relevant to you - Essay Example During World War II, Guy Debord left home and travelled throughout the country of France. He began schooling in Cannes, where his interest in film and vandalism was discovered. As a young man, Debord was an active opposer of the French war in Algeria. Moreover, he joined in mass movements in Paris against it. Guy Debord joined the letterist internationally. Debord was the head of the situationist international group, which influenced the Paris rebellion of 1968; commonly known as: â€Å"The Society of the spectacle." The society of the spectacle and experts from the group, the situationist began to form their own theory of the spectacle, which explained the nature of the capitalism historical decay. In Guy Debords terms, the spectacle was to be defined as an assemblage of social relationships transmitted through the imagery of class power, and as the period of capitalist development where all that once lived has to be represented by an image. It is my argument that both of Debord’s terms alienated masses and revolutionary collective are secretly dependent upon the atomized perspective of liberal individualism. Both terms abstract the individual from subtending cultural traditions and the over-arching social relations in which they are embedded. Thus, this article seeks to explore the logic of Debord’s influential theory, propounding its insights and exposing the deficiencies of its underlying theoretical foundations. In The Society of Spectacle, Debord talks about the concept of the Spectacle. He also writes of: degradation of human life, commodity fetishism, mass media, and the difference between religion and marketing. The society of the spectacle is an essential text and the main work of the situationist. The work of the political and cultural theory has been provocative from its publication. In communities dominated by contemporary situations of production, life is viewed as an immense accumulation of s pectacle. Everything directly lived is

The Impact of the China New Labour Law on Industries and Labour Income Dissertation

The Impact of the China New Labour Law on Industries and Labour Income - Dissertation Example Some of the famous labour scholars such as Professor Chang Kai, Professor Wong Liu, lawyer Jiang Jun Lu publicly argued that the fixed term contract regulations contained in the Labour Law are necessary for protecting workers from indiscriminate termination of employment. Economists such as; the world famous economist Professor Steven N.S. Cheung and Professor Wong Yijiang, as well as labour expert Professor Dong Baohua and Law Professor Ho Bing, argued that welfare protection compromises enterprise protection and the ability of employees to be mobile (Blanpain and Nakakubo 2010, 66). The financial crisis did not help matters. Faced with struggling to keep businesses afloat and the prospect of liability for increased employee security under China’s New Labour Law, a number of businesses reportedly closed their doors. Other companies reportedly liquidated their assets to avoid compensatory damages against employee claims under the new law (Canaves 2009, A6). This research study conducts a critical analysis of China’s New Labour Law 2008 and its consequences for industries and labour income. In order to set the framework for this critical analysis, a descriptive research is conducted which reflects the economic developments in China over the past thirty years. This period is important because it covers the economic policies of Dang Xiao Ping who opened China’s markets to the rest of the world ending a long history of isolation. In the course of conducting this descriptive research, changes in the income of urban dwellers and rural farmers will be revealed. This will help to set a conceptual framework for analysing the necessity and aims of the New Labour Law and its actual and likely consequences for industries and workers’ income. This research takes a mixed methods approach in that both qualitative and quantitative research analyses are conducted. The qualitative research methods involves a review of the literature relative to Chinaà ¢â‚¬â„¢s economic development, the labour market and the implementation of China’s Labour Law 2008. The quantitative research methods consist of an empirical research study conducted. The empirical research study consist of a series of personal interviews of 100 workers and five owners of divergent sized factories. Evidence obtained from these interviews are compared to the evidence relative to empirical evidence reported in the literature on the experience of labourers who work outside of China under different jurisdictions and their labour laws. The purpose of the interviews with workers and factory owners was to identify the influence of China’s New Labour Law on the income of workers and the adjustment that businesses were compelled to make as a result of the New Labour Law. Research findings indicate that China’s New Labour Contract Law has had a substantial negative impact on the cost of manufacturing and has negative impact on the benefits intended for wo rkers. Acknowledgements. I would like to thank my tutor, Mr. Abel Khoo for his assistance. Mr. Khoo identified my errors and provided valuable advice for correcting them. He also provided valuable advice as to properly identifying the issues and the organizing the relevant material. Mr. Khoo also helped me to organize the design of this research thesis. I am also grateful to the five owners of the factories who willingly

Caribbean Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Caribbean - Essay Example Much like the Caribbean people who struggle with their national identities after enduring European brutality, West Indian poets found it difficult to find their own poetic voice (Breiner, 113). Instead of producing works that reflected their true feelings, West Indian poets found their poetry succumbing to the traditional British verse and subject matters. It was not until later that West Indian poets were permitted to liberally express themselves in the poetic form. When they ventured to write parallel to their true feelings and beliefs, West Indian poets often did so apologetically. Poets were left to question their poetic boundaries. Likely questions of the poets were whether or not they should engage in "social commentary, protests," or seek to find a balance between "protest poetry and high art" (Jennings 23). As a result, much of the West Indian poetry, including Eric Roach's, conveyed uncertainty and confusion. Known for Caribbean pastoral imagery in his writing (Jennings 4), Roach paints vivid pictures that show beauty of the land. In each stanza of the poem, the poet conveys his adoration of the land. The poem opens with sensual imagery which allows the reader to picture lush green vegetation and hear waves breaking amid the expansive blue waters. Roach further enjoys what the land has to offer by accompanying others on a jubilant banana boat tour. Roach's imaginative perception of the landscape serves a dual purpose; it captures the essence of Caribbean beauty and showcases the delight that the author takes in his land. Amid the beauty in each stanza, however, resides negativity and inner turmoil. Roach reveals that the internal conflict interrupts his ability to fully appreciate his surroundings. In the first stanza, the beauty and brilliance of the landscape intrudes upon his desires. Though pleasing to the eye, Roach's surroundings hold his dreams and aspirations hostage. From there, the poem digresses into an explanation of the role of restriction and how it ultimately tainted his view of the land. With songs in his heart, Roach once again optimistically attempts to enjoy what the land has to offer in the following stanza. However, the enjoyable excursion is short-lived as the sun turns to snow and they encounter "hostile and exploding zones." Thus, inner turmoil and confusion taints the joys and hopes presented in the poem. Each stanza of the poem conveys an absolute contrast between the land and the Roach's state of mind. In the beginning of the poem, the distant beautiful and crashing waves are empty, yet they engulf all of his dreams. It seems that the water represents a destructive force. Roach comments on the burial of his friend and his sister's beauty being tainted. Obviously, the vicious experiences take a toll on the people of the land. In spite of it all, however, the people remain steadfast in their desire to survive. Once again, hope is presented in the people's perseverance to regenerate their confidence. Moreover, the people's perseverance encourages Roach to proclaim that love (the pride in their heritage and nation) defeats the oppressive struggle. In the end, the Roach finally admits the struggle in coming to terms with the tainted precedence before him and the will to purify it

Managing Operation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Managing Operation - Essay Example   The operations of an establishment are all the activities which are directly linked to accomplish the key function of the organization – be it producing a product or rendering services. In both the cases the operations system of rules will offer the transition of certain inputs, like materials and labour, into outputs, as products or services. This paper will discuss about the company Toyota Corporation and how it became the number one car maker. Toyota Motor Corporation, which is based in Toyota, Japan, is one of the world’s largest automobile manufacturer offering well known car models like Camry, Corolla, Corona and Lexus. Though a late entrant compared to General Motors and Ford, Toyota had become one strongest player in the automobile industry. In an industry generally considered to be mature in terms of technology, Toyota had continued to set benchmarks for providing value to customers more effectively than competitors. Toyota had also redefined the rules of operation management in various areas like product development, manufacturing process, vendor management, customer satisfaction and human resource management. The formal establishment of Toyota motor company ltd., took place in 1937 and since then it moves onto become the leader in the global automobile industry. By 31st march 2008, Toyota group approximately sold 8.9 million vehicles in 170 countries under the Toyota, Lexus, Daihatsu and Hino brands. Since the automobile industry is now facing a recession, Toyota aims to achieve sustainable growth by building a more flexible and stronger operational process and corporate structure to counter the challenges of the hyper competitive market world over (Annual Report, Toyota, 2008). Toyota devised lean production which is otherwise known as the Toyota Production System (TPS) which has started a worldwide shift in almost every industry to Toyota’s

Improving Health Care Quality & Patient Safety in an Acute Care Essay

Improving Health Care Quality & Patient Safety in an Acute Care Setting - Essay Example , traditionally dealt with through focus on mistakes from individuals, are now accepted to result, not from human error alone, but also from failure of systems. For this reason, it is important to maintain safety and quality of healthcare in acute settings. Preventable adverse effects, in particular, are believed to be because of systemic and latent failures in care-delivery systems. The key to ensuring safety and quality in acute healthcare settings is using defense mechanisms, which can identify and interrupt situations that could be dangerous (Healy, 2009). One example of this in an acute clinical setting is the systematic surveillance of patients by nurses that may serve, as a defense mechanism to stop dangerous situations, as well as strategies for error recovery. There are several key challenges that face quality and patient safety in acute settings. Systemic factors like underuse of technology in existence, failure to include family and patient in making decisions, poor collaboration from healthcare members, inadequate resources, and poor staffing is one of them. Another challenge has to do, with human factors like the skills and education of nurses, to implement quality and safety strategies (Healy, 2009). Novice nurses, especially, are overwhelmed by time and task constraints, which prevent them from integrating the â€Å"big picture† that effective improvement of quality and patient safety in acute care settings requires. Resources like data access and time are vital in the performance of comprehensive assessments. Healthcare workers who are interrupted, distracted, or responsible for functions that are not related to nursing will not have enough time to devote to this improvement. Collaboration, which is essential to this improve ment, especially with patients and their families, has influence on acute patients’ outcomes (Healy, 2009). Policies or unit structures that are not conducive to this collaboration impedes on the process, as well as adversely

Cult and Terror Groups Essay Example for Free

Cult and Terror Groups Essay No one in his right mind would volunteer to join a terrorist group or a cult. It boggles the mind why people would allow themselves to suffer by joining a secretive organization that demands absolute obedience and self-less sacrifice. But then again, one has to see it form their point of view for the outside world may see a terror group or a personality cult but for the members they see different. They see themselves a part of a freedom fighting organization or a group that exists to save the world. Irregardless of what is the correct view the question remains – why would anybody wants to be a terrorist or a member of a cult? This study will take a look at cults and terror groups based on the writings of The Jonestown Cult It has already been said, no one in his right mind would like to join a cult. And here is why, in a nutshell, a cult is secretive organization where members surrender their collective rights to follow the whims and desires of a leader or a small group of leaders. Who would like to be part of something like that? Who would surrender personal freedoms on account of another human being? But there are at least three major reasons why an unsuspecting person is sucked into a powerful black hole such as a personality cult and these are enumerated as follows: 1. A deep emotional and psychological need that finds fulfillment within the cult; 2. Finding a sense of purpose in the vision of the leader(s); and 3. A series of events or signs that seems to confirm the sincerity, divine right, and authority of the particular leader. Emotional Need There is no need to elaborate on Debbie Claytons emotional and psychological problem. But there is a need to reiterate that it is his need for his fathers attention and a great need for a deeper relationship with his mother that made it easy for her to join Jonestown. A cult will offer the same sense of camaraderie and a family for someone despairing for such emotional and psychological salve. Debbie adds that it is not only his utter sense of failure and desperate need to connect with real people, but is also her background that prepared her to accept Jim Jones. She realized that she always had this deep felt need to please her father. And when her father was no longer there as the object of her childish affections, Jim Jones was ready to take his place. A Sense of Purpose Debbie Clayton needed help so she can set her priorities straight. She tells herself shes lost and she has found the way when Jim Jones pointed to her the right way when he declared, â€Å"Come forward. Be a part of a fellowship that will work to rid our society of hatred, racism, and poverty. I am inviting you to join in a new beginning, a life you can feel challenged by. Through my ministry you can help make history† (as cited in Clayton). And for Debbie it was hard to resist. The only problem here is that the cult leader was not there to fulfill Debbies dreams but instead used her to fulfill his vision. Jim Jones knowingly or unknowingly made Debbie accept a new reality, that the cult leaders goals and aspirations are now her main priorities in life. A true leader will serve ad will make other people discover what they are meant to be and then support that person until he or she realizes their dreams. Confirmation This is a very interesting aspect in the study of cults, in the case of Jim Jones and his interaction with Claytons and the subsequent joining of Larry – after three years Debbie Clayton joined the cult – into the Jonestown community. It must be understood that the confirmation can be likened to a sign or an event that is so unlikely that the person could not help but conclude that the cult leader is genuine and has the divine authority to lead. These signs can be witnessed by the members or heard it as part of the history of the organization. Going back to the series of events that led the Claytons in accepting the leadership and authority of Jim Jones, the first sign was Larrys seemingly miraculous exemption from being drafted in Vietnam, with the help of course from the charismatic leader. The second sign was the realization that Jim Jones was correct about his opposition against the war in Vietnam, the third sign was knowing about Jones exploits such as being appointed as a Director of a certain Human Rights commission when Jones was only 31 years old. The fourth sign was Jim Jones adopting three Korean orphans and having a Negro for an associate. For Debbie Clayton her confirmation was in knowing all of the above and in seeing a letter to Jim Jones that was singed by then Governor Ronald Reagan. One could only surmise what is going on in the minds of Larry and Debbie Clayton but their thought process could be similar to the one below: ? Jim Jones is 100 percent genuine because he went to great lengths just so he can demonstrate his principles in action; ? The letter exempting Larry from being drafted in Vietnam and Ronald Reagans letter validates Jones as a great leader; and ? A vibrant mixed congregation is irrefutable proof of his compassion and deep love for the minorities who are usually treated as outcasts and second-class citizens in America. Inferences It is interesting to point out some of the ideas gleaned from Debbie Claytons narration of her experience inside Jonestown. Some of the more fascinating ideas that almost jumped out of the pages is the realization that cult members are not poor and that they are not uneducated, in fact many of them were really smart – the college or university type. For instance one could easily tell that Larry, Carolyn, and Debbie are the sort that can afford to earn a college degree and that their families had the means to allow them to get what they want in life. Another interesting thing that needs mentioning here is the idea that cult members will normally not dig deep enough to paint a coherent understanding of their doctrines etc. For instance Jim Jones claims to be Christian and yet he also teaches a form of reincarnation. A quick survey of Christian history and Jesus teachings will reveal that it cannot mix with reincarnation that should have been a warning for Debbie but once the three aforementioned factors are in effect, the person would only hear what he or she wants to believe at that point. Terrorists It can be argued that those who wanted to join a terror group do not see themselves as terrorists. At least they see themselves as soldiers and freedom fighters. Although Jessica Stern pointed out that, â€Å" developing a single profile of suicide bombers in nearly impossible† (as cited in Stern), one can easily conclude that economic difficulties, politics and religion are the major factors that made them to join. It is not uncommon to discover that families of suicide bombers are taken cared of after their martyred sons successfully carried out a mission. On the religious side there is no need to elaborate as to its impact on the recruitment process. But it is interesting to point out some of the important aspects of Islam. First of all, Islams founder Mohammed was the first to use the ten virgins and promise of paradise as part of the perks and privileges of joining Islam. It is curious why Stern did not elaborate on this and instead went on trying to defend Islam as a non-violent religion when Stern herself quoted portions of the Koran justifying killing for the sake of achieving religious goals. The political aspect can be summarized in one word – Israel. Their hatred for this tiny nation is understandable but it is hard to believe that a person can kill himself simply on the basis of political ideologies. This brings to the realization that religion and politics are seen as one, the intermingling is hard to separate. This means that religious beliefs help shape their politics. Intense hatred for Israel can be explained by the constant fighting. But knowing that the Arabs hated Israel even when the nation was still in its fledgling state after World War II plainly reveals that there anger is fueled by something more than the need for retribution and this is because the Arabs were the first to strike. Fanaticism If terror groups and cults are compared and contrasted one fact becomes visible and it is their fanatical obsession with their respective organizations and blind obedience to their leaders. But here the similarities end. For cults there seems to be a pattern of first having found an answer to their deep emotional and psychological need. This is the point of entry for cult members. For the terror group on the other hand there may be also be a an emotional and psychological need but this is eclipsed by religion and politics. A cult member may later on express love for the community but it can be argued that he or she is only doing so because the community is the source of love, affection, and the main reason why he or she can satisfy that aching emotional and psychological need. For the terror group on the other hand the reasons are less selfish. It is as if the recruitment process is being reversed. For the cult the self-help comes first that is why they will join the group. For the terror group, the community comes first and then self-help such as money for their families comes in as part of the perks and privileges. Deadly Intent A cult may be characterized as a group that is fanatical about a certain set of beliefs. It can be religious or ideological and there is nothing wrong with that. The Greenpeace Movement, a group of environmental activists can be as fanatic as the best of them but the only difference is that cult groups are in business because they want to save the person or the community. The terror group on the other hand is focused on killing others. It can be argued that cults are capable of killing but it is not the usual pattern. On the other hand terror groups used murder and suicide bombings as their main tools. Frustrations One is bewildered by the lack of diplomacy. If Islamic radicals believe that they are in the right path and that their religion is the only path then why would they encourage their members to go on dialogue with their Western counterparts? It does not require a rocket scientist to realize that the more attacks on the U. S. mainland will only increase retribution. But this is just one of the major reasons why dialogue is needed. The more important reason why they must engage in dialogue is the simple fact that they are killing innocent civilians. Not only is their tactics not working to make the world aware of their plight – as of recent history Afghanistan and Iraq were reduced to rubble by incessant fighting – they are also killing those who have nothing to do with Middle East politics. Conclusion It is fascinating to study the similarities of cults and terror groups. Both types of organizations or community require a charismatic leader and blind obedience to the same leader. But this is the point where their paths would diverge. The leader of the cult will help his members only because he wants them to make his dreams and aspirations their own. Thus the cult operates on a more personal level, each group characterized by the personality of the cult leader. Terror groups on the other hand – specifically Islamic terror groups – are bent on killing for the sake of forcing the issue. Cults are fanatical but murder and suicide bombings are not their main tools of choice. Works Cited Layton, Deborah. Seductive Poison: A Jonestown Survivor’s Story of Life and Death in the People’s Temple. Doubleday, 1998. Smith, Paul. The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty First Century. M. E. Sharpe Publishers, 2008. Stern, Jessica. Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill. Harper Collins, 2003.

Building Information Modelling (BIM)

Building Information Modelling (BIM) 2.1 Introduction As expressed in the Egan report (1998), the UK construction industry is a significant contributor to the domestic economy in the UK that it is simply too important to be overlooked. The construction process and its success are influenced by various factors and choosing the most effective investment to improve the construction process is a very important decision. Building Information Modelling has been said to represent a paradigm that will have comprehensive benefits brought to the construction industry (Eastman, 2009b). Popov et al. (2010) claimed that the growing diversity of disciplines, professionals, tasks, events in respect of the management during design and construction stages of projects, plus the more competitive cost and more intense deadlines with higher quality expectations as well as the need for enhancing technology are the driving force of information modelling in the construction industry. Building Information Modelling, or better known as BIM is not; strictly speaking a new technology as it has been developing and used by other industry sectors since 1950s i.e. the automotive and aero plane industries. These industries have been way ahead of the AEC industry as for the past 20 years, fully utilizing the available technology for their industries (Augustsson, 2007). Subsequently, this literature review will assess and evaluate the historic and current information in respect of Building Information Modelling to enable an understanding on the past development of BIM, the benefits that it could offer to our construction projects as well as identifying the barriers entailing for the full adoption of BIM among the contractors in the UK construction industry. 2.2 What is BIM? As defined by BIMForum:- â€Å"A building information model (BIM) is an object-oriented building development tool that utilizes 5-D modeling concepts, information technology and software interoperability to design, construct and operate a building project, as well as communicate its details† (BIMForum, 2007). One common understanding to describe BIM is the building development tool that creates a three dimensional (3D) geometric model with computer softwares. The model then can be used to assist the design, construction and operational process and also acting as a communication tool (BIMForum 2007). Nevertheless a 3D geometric model wouldnt be sufficient to answer the demanding construction requirements at present. A BIM model contains a high level of intelligence which not just limited to a three-dimensional geometric representation of the building, (GSA, 2007) but also includes 5D modelling where the 4th dimension is referring to time element whilst the 5th dimension is referring to cost. In addition, as indicated by BIMForum (2007), there might be further development that is inclusive of procurement application which is the 6D as well as the operational applications which is the 7D. In general, a building information model is a digital representation, â€Å"virtual† representati on of all the physical and functional characteristic of a building which also acts as a resource of information storage for the building which could be shared/used from the inception period and throughout the lifecycle of the building. 2.3 The past development and revolution of BIM Conventionally, constructing a building was merely the responsibility of the Architects and the Engineers, designing on papers and then the Contractors build it. Cyon Research (2003) stated that Construction projects have always been defined by various drawings and documents where at times might be in conflict with each other thus showing inconsistency. These inconsistencies are the typical issues that often aroused when the documents and drawings are maintained separately with different participants working on different or superseded documents. There will always be unanticipated field costs, delays and eventual lawsuits between various parties within a project team as a result of errors and omissions in paper based communication. According to Vinod Kumar (2009), the beginning of orthographic drawings and perspectives can be traced back as far as during the Renaissance era when Filippo Brunelleschi represented the plans in drawing format for Santa Maria del Fiore in Italy in order for the patrons to understand how the building would look like. Vinod Kumar (2009) further explains the evolution of systematic documentation from manual methods all the way till our presently available technology by dividing it into three phases: I phase Till early 1980s: Before 1980s the traditional way of creating design documents are through manually drawn lines representing building i.e. plans, sections, elevations and etc. II phase 1980s to Late 1990s: This was the period where major change took place from manual drafting towards computer aided drafting when computers were firstly introduce. There is more elaborated information as the complexity of buildings increased as well as more specialization in the design and construction process. Use of computers, especially for 2D drawings and reports are ground-breaking changes into the systematic Documentation. III phase Beginning of the 2K: With the buildings degree of complexity presently, the number of parties involved in the process of drawing production has also increased. In line with the development of technology there are also more introduction of more interrelated and integrated building system i.e. HVAC system, energy requirement and etc. The computer based technology has also been constantly updated to reduce errors that occur but nonetheless they are still merely the collections of manually created, non-intelligent lines and text. The diagram below shows the evolution from manual methods all the way till the introduction of new technologies. A previous study by Autodesk (2002) which correlates with Vinods statement, mentioned that in the early 1980s the Construction industry took one step forward when the architects began using PC based Computer Aided Design, CAD. It is said that the CAD system was adapted with ease by the Industry as it was initiated from the pin-bar drafting which the Industry was familiar with. Thus many construction documents and drawings were completed using CADD rather than being drafted manually on drawing boards. DWS files were then exchanged in replacement of paper drawings, from simple graphics to the information content on the building. The CAD files developed significantly, communicating the information on the building which plotted drawing couldnt. Following that Holzer (2009) also stated that in the late 70s and early 80s, CAD systems like RUCAPS was used where it operated in parametric environment enabling 2D information extracted from a 3D model. RUCAPS allowed multi user access and put f orward a new way in generating, distributing as well as retrieving building information which was different fromt he common drafting processes. Unfortunately the down side of this system was the high cost and slow speed of the system as well as its inability of producing more complex geometrical shapes. Nevertheless, some of the fundamental concept of RUCAPS can be found in the current BIM software such as Autodesks REVIT, Bentleys TRIFORMA, Gehry Techs DIGITAL PROJECT and etc. Nowadays, the use of BIM is very common within the manufacturing and aerospace industries where new products or product changes are modelled virtually for the assessment of design, performance and production. . We are also in the process of experiencing a similar revolution in the construction industry. BIM and other related technologies have emerged since the past decade and developing up till the present where they have been acknowledge as the platform for the design and construction of various projects (Shen, et.al, 2009). Nevertheless, FWCI (2009) argued that it is important to understand that BIM is not CAD+ or the â€Å"Son† of CAD as BIM functions in its own approach and discipline. BIM, acting as a single source entry for project team involves the process of generating, storing, managing, exchanging and sharing building information in an interoperable and reusable way. Generally a BIM system is a tool that enables users to integrate and reuse building information and domain knowledge through the lifecycle of a building Presently there are numerous BIM products on the market by various vendors. Autodesk Revit was considered as one of the leading BIM creation tools. Bentley Systems, Graphisoft, Vico software and Nementcheck are also currently very well-known in the market. They each provide various building model tools to design a building (Rosenberg 2006). With this technology, the information needed for a projects design, construction and operation are contained in a model digitally which is centralized and could be shared across all associated project stakeholders (COBRA, 2008). 2.4 Various understanding of BIM in the Industry At present there is a vast amount of information that is available in respect to the definition of premise of BIM. Holzer (2007) explained that even though the application of BIM becomes more accepted and common throughout the industry, but there has been a problem in agreeing the definition of BIM. The common definitions would be described as a method for project information management with the combination of non-geometry attributes with geometrical entities, or defined mostly by pointing out its capabilities for cost-control and to facilities management. Holzer (2007) continues to claim that because the term BIM is often used by vendors for their marketing strategies in order to promote their company software, the definition of BIM technology has become very confusing. On the other hand, Eastman et al (2008) has suggested that in order to deal with this confusion it is useful to describe modelling solutions that do not utilize BIM technology. This includes tools that create models containing only 3D data with no object attributes, models that do not utilize parametric intelligence, models composed of multiple 2D CAD reference files that must be combined to define the building as well as models that allow changes to dimensions in one view that are not automatically reflected in other views. Furthermore, another popular â€Å"talk about† issue within the industry is the multi dimension product models, the ability of BIM to provide multi dimensional application. (GSA 2007) has stated that 4D models represent 3D models plus time which include project phasing, construction scheduling whilst 5D models incorporate the costs elements. Nonetheless, Lee (2005) has identified the additional numbering of the dimension as â€Å"nD† modelling. Lee stated that nD modelling is an extension of the building information model that incorporates multi-aspects of design information required at each stage of the lifecycle of a building facility. On the other hand, in the year 2006, The Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) also published â€Å"The Contractors Guide to BIM† which touched on the issue in respect of the continuing usage of the numbering i.e. 6D, 7D, and etc has therefore acknowledged the extended application of the 3D tool as â€Å"XD† (AGC , 2006). This research is mainly focusing on the 3D models with incorporation of time (4D) and cost (5D) elements. 2.5 Benefits of BIM There are many obvious benefits that BIM could offer to various parties including the owners, planners, engineers, estimators, designers and etc. It is understood that different stakeholders would value BIM differently. They may share the same information but have different responsibilities and uses on the model. From a Contractors perspective, BIM brings essential value for enabling virtual construction of the structure within a single source file (Hardin, 2009). As quoted from the BIM 2009 Smart Report, â€Å"A model is Worth a Thousand Drawings†. Contractors are making use of the intelligent model for assisting them with various activities i.e. planning construction sequences, cost estimations and bidding, conflict resolution and visualization project demonstration for client and etc (Neeley, 2010). The incorporation of intelligent data improves the models construction and post-construction realities, which also enables the contractor to get closer to the world of the desig ner (Sage software 2008). The initial literature review has showed that costs are significantly reduced, time is saved and the quality improved. 2.5.1 Single source Model In conventional process, the Project Manager reviews the updated drawings and reflects any changes onto the schedule as the design progress. Many times the same information is entered into different program. Every repetition increases the probability of inconsistency and error occurrence. BIM on the other hand allow direct changes applied to the single model. As both designers and contractors have access to the model simultaneously, this corresponding process also enables them to reduce lead times which normally take place throughout the period of sending back-and-forth the documents. The collaborative environment contributes to a substantial time saving during pre construction. Extra coordination checks are also unnecessary because the information generated from the model will lead to fewer errors on site which normally is caused by inaccurate and uncoordinated information. In the case of any last minute design changes, addendums, clarifications and etc it could be altered and updat ed to the model automatically across the project team, from early design through completion (Hardin, 2009). These ensure that all parties are working with the latest information. With all the information contained within the BIM database it will definitely increase the efficiency between the Architect, Engineer as well as the Contractors. 2.5.2 The 3D Visualization Clash Detection The 3D visualisation capability of BIM models can be of great benefit as a means of testifying the workability and demonstrating aspects of the construction itself such as construction sequencing, logistics, access, storage and security (C3 System 2009). BIM allows for â€Å"building twice† which offers various benefits like improvement in Constructability, maintainability, cost estimate accuracy and etc. This reduces ambiguities before commencement of actual construction (Robert, 2005). The construction issues for layperson or non layperson are also made easier to understand as the 3D visualisation helps them to understand any constraints that the client had not made clear earlier, or were misunderstood (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). One of the major benefits which BIM could provide for contractors is clash detection. As identified by FWIC (2009), a hard clash is where more than one object is being designed to occupy the same space whilst a soft clash is where the objects in the design is too close to each other that there is no space for access or construction, or are too close that they have violated the building codes. The BIM system automatically detects and manages interferences which prevent possible delay or additional cost. The system could be set to run the check either the entire model or between certain parts of the model. 2.5.3 Construction Phasing (4D Simulation) Furthermore, one of the obvious BIM applications for improved time efficiency is construction planning. Hardin (2008) argued that the construction planning is one of the most important tasks and also one of the driving factors that determine the success of any projects. It is noted by Eastman et al (2008b) that Construction Planning and scheduling involves sequencing activities in space and time, procurement consideration, resources, spatial restrictions and etc. BIM is said to contribute in project planning solutions via the use of 4D simulation. Napier (2009) claimed that the conventional scheduling methods are labour intensive and is not easily understood by laypersons. BIM enables better communication and understanding how the schedule would impact site logistics as a result of the 4D construction phasing/planning tools that incorporate direct links to the design model, capturing spatial information which the traditional Gantt chart is unable to demonstrate. The 4D model incorpor ates time as added 4th dimension which enables the planner to visually plan and sequencing of construction activities with space and time consideration. Also, there might be specific materials and products selected from a potential range of refinements and substitutions that meet the project specification but may result in changes to some aspects of the design. As Neeley (2010) have stated, with the allowance of â€Å"what ifs†, a significant of cost, project risks and unnecessary waste could be saved by shifting the â€Å"try-and-error† process from construction site to the virtual environment on beforehand. Resource Allocation/Reducing Waste According to Egan (1998) in â€Å"Rethinking Construction†, within the construction industry almost 10% of materials are wasted and 30% of construction is rework. As mentioned by Articlesbased (2009) construction projects are very often planned based on resources availability as well as other external factors. With the 4D construction phasing/planning, the team members are able to understand the scope of work and the availability of various resources in order to optimize the resources and labour accordingly. In addition, Eastman (2008b) highlights that BIM is also accurate in providing the design model and material resources required for each segment of the work, it effectively assists in utilization of critical resources like labour, material and time during the building construction life cycle. With the improved monitoring of site logistics and the progress of project, the site management via BIM fosters just-in-time (JIT) of materials, plant/equipment and labours. Pre-fabrication Accuracy of design details are critical for determining the success of pre-fabrication, and a data-rich BIM model can have a positive impact and provide greater confidence on pre-fabrication. As BIM brings clarity towards a complex project, more contractors appreciate that BIM offers the advantage of effective coordination as the complexity level of project increases. The â€Å"Design to Build and Build to Design† concept improves accuracy for estimation and design specification for prefabricated elements thus reducing unnecessary wastage (BIMJOURNAL 2009). With greater confidence in the coordination process, many contractors are approaching more prefabrication options to help ease schedules. (BIM Smart Report, 2009) 2.5.4 Cost Estimates/schedule management From the costing aspect, Jernigan (2008) stated one of the main benefits provided by BIM is the accuracy in cost estimate during earlier stages. Conventionally, estimators have been relying on Excel spreadsheet to carry out their construction cost estimating (Autodesk, 2007), Eastman (2009b) then revealed that BIM include features for extraction and quantification of BIM component properties. By using a building information model instead of drawings; the takeoffs, counts, and measurements can be generated directly from the underlying model and the information can be linked to generate bills of materials, size and area estimations along with other related estimating information. Therefore the information is always consistent with the design and reduces the potential for human error or misunderstanding (Autodesk, 2007). This contributes to substantial time and cost saving as well as ensuring good quality of the BOQ. BIM offers the opportunity to develop more accurate cost estimates bas ed on actual elements (Hartman and Fischer 2008). Moreover, the linked cost information evolves in step with the design changes (Ashcraft, 2008). In addition, an indirect advantage that BIM could offered is the estimator would be given more extra time to bring in more value engineering, more time for risk evaluation and to more time to find any additional cost savings as the â€Å"technology† has taken up most of the grunt work from the estimator (Hague, No date).Using cost attributing features of the model to assess alternative design and construction schemes to enhance and improve the value engineering process; BIM certainly contributes in supporting the Contractor to present value for money to the Client. Neeley (2010) has claimed that the use of BIM and IPD (Integrated Project Delivery) is reducing project costs around 10%- 20% below construction costs compared to non BIM/IPD projects. 2.6 Case Studies No 1: One Island East, Hong Kong One of the popular examples of the actual Building Information Modeling Project that has been mentioned by various Authors in their research is One Island East Office Tower in Hong Kong which was developed by Swire Properties Limited. Together with the project BIM consultant, Gehry Technologies (GT) they began the process of working together to create a single, 3D electronic Building Information Model (Riese, 2006). The Project Details are summarized as follow: 2.6.1 Background Information The One Island East is a 308 meter high skyscraper with 59 stories of office space and two basement levels. The building has 70 floors in total which comprise of a sky lobby on 37th and 38th floors (Elkem Microsilika, 2009). It was Swires intention to achieve a high-quality design while improving construction time as well as cost savings by the use of collaborative, collocated work methods and integrated 3-D modeling tools. The initial objective was to save 10 percent on the cost with reduced time for construction (Shelden et al, 2008). The software tool chosen to create the BIM for this project is â€Å"Digital Project† with some of the benefits stated as follows: (Riese, 2006) Has automated clash detection and management Has a complete ME system routing tool. With built-in scripting function, enabling project requirements to be integrated for customization. Automated simultaneous file versioning and file sharing. Able to handle and manipulate large amounts of data Integrated with Primavera scheduling software with high interoperability 2.6.2 BIM Implementation (Pre-tender stage) BIM commenced after the schematic design phase. The office building has been pre-designed virtually using Digital Project by assembling up to 300.000 building components in a single master file. Almost all coordination issues were resolved using BIM. The design team, BIM consultant and Project Manager worked in one room for the first year. They also communicate with each other via a portal site for the BIM process. The DP software was capable of identifying geometric clashes and generates a list automatically. There were already several clashes and errors identified and resolved before tendering and construction. The DP tool also measured most of the quantities automatically which reduced the time and effort compared to manual take off. Also, the quantities were linked to the BIM which automatically updates when changes were made. 2.6.3 BIM Implementation (Tendering Stage) The model was provided to all tenderers which enabled them to have confirmation on the bill of quantities using the model without having to measure the quantities manually. As a result, tender process improved significantly with lower cost estimates and more accurate quantity takeoffs. 2.6.4 BIM Implementation (Post Tender Stage) Gammon Construction Limited, which was the contractor awarded for the project had full responsibility for the BIM model and began the development of highly accurate and detailed 3D BIM model for construction, ensuring that all 2D information would be firstly scrutinize in the 3D prototype before it went to the site. 2.6.5 BIM Implementation (Construction) During the construction period, the BIM model became the main visualization tool for the coordination of various project elements. There were full time modelers that assisted with the clashes identification and coordination issues where the design solutions were then incorporated into the model. A few subcontractors also participated in modeling their parts of work. 4D simulation was one of the main factors for the success of the OIE project. It was used extensively for improving construction sequence and managing risk. 2.6.6 Outcome There were more than 2000 clashes and errors were identified prior to bidding and construction stage, which resulted significant cost savings. The figure below is an example of a clash that has been detected between an electrical cable tra y and an air supply duct. Without BIM it wouldnt have been detected until the actual construction taken place which might potentially cause additional cost and time to the project. According to Shen et al.(2009), the geometric coordination off the design prior to construction is thought to achieve 10% cost savings whilst construction process modeling is thought to contribute further 20% cost savings on the construction. Gammon Construction has also reported that Construction Process Modeling saved the project at least 20 days. This project was awarded the American Institute of Architects 2008 BIM award for design/delivery process innovation. 2.7 Implementing BIM and the Potential Challenges From section 2.2 above it is demonstrated that BIM has brought numerous advantages and benefits to the industry. However there are also challenges and barriers that to be overcome before the full capability of BIM could be demonstrated and subsequently fully â€Å"enjoyed† by the industry stakeholders (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). In the very traditional and fragmented building industry, new technologies are not easily introduced. It should be noted that when a new technology is introduced, there will be a certain period of time in which the claims about the potential of the technology needs to be examined, tested and verified particularly the AEC industry which is known for the very long adoption periods of promising technologies (May et al. 2005; Salazar et al. 2006). Even though the technology of BIM is readily available and rapidly maturing but the adoption of BIM is much slower than anticipated (Fischer Kunz, 2006). Gillis (2008) made the criticism indicating that UK appears to be a more conservative and over protective country that demands proven effectiveness before considering adoption of new technology whilst Counties such as Norway, Sweden, and US attempts to proceed with new technology without 100% confirmation (Simon Gillis, 2008). As criticised by Prather (2007), most of the time, our professional would take the â€Å"wait-and-see† approach towards BIM. This is echoed by Safe software (2008) stating that our industry would mostly accept BIM only when the risk level has dropped and a clear return on investment is made known to the industry. Moreover, in these recessionary times, the money to spend on technology has got to have a good business case. The current UK industry inhibitors include contracts that has not promote working in collaboration, no external incentive for innovation, no motivation for parties to seek ways to deliver a better or quicker product and etc (Steve Dunwell, 2008). 2.7.1 Installation and operation Cost Eastman (2009) has highlighted one of the barriers to adopting BIM is the cost associated with the implementation. It is said that implementing new technology like BIM requires additional cost in respect of purchasing new software and hardware packages, training as well as changing the work processes and workflows. Also, if there are no technical expertises available within the organization, there will be a need to engage with external consultants to train employees prior to applying BIM within the organization which accounts for additional cost as well (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). Corresponding to what Eastman (2009) as well as Furneaux Kivits (2008) have said, a research done by Suermann et al. (2009) revealed that the whole installation of BIM for an organization is a costly plan when done at on one occasion, and even greater when done for several installations simultaneously for different projects. In addition, Suermann et al (2009) findings showed that there has been company which have had to increase their effort and cost allowance to do BIM due to the high learning curve. Apart from that, there is also an implication for procurement policy where consideration needs to be given to the additional funding for the development of BIM models in the first instance. The large size of BIM files will involve a different system for data sharing i.e. real time access to the BIM database between firms which are geographically distant and high speed internet connectivity will be essential (Kiviniemi et al., 2008 p.64). This would constitute extra cost for the operation of BIM. Furthermore, in order to reduce the risk of data corruption, sabotage, and loss; it is important to pay any indispensable cost associated to ensure data stability and security. 2.7.2 Embracing BIM throughout the entire supply chain Another apparent factor that has caused BIM taking the back seat is lack of commitment from the higher level of the supply chain. According to Oberle (2009), the transition to BIM requires support and commitment throughout the supply chain from top to down of an organization. In addition, The Crawley Schools PFI project in West Sussex has revealed the benefits which they have gained with the implementation of BIM but simultaneously also addressed one of their main barriers in implementing BIM was the reluctance of the supply chain in embracing this new technology, stating that some conservative individuals did not believe the benefits that BIM could offer thus were hesitant to undertake this new approach (Constructing Excellence, 2010). It is also noted that some Contractors that have too much existing workload might give the excuse that they dont have enough time to try out new technology. As quoted from Dunwell (2009), â€Å"Old habits die hard†. Most workers are reluctant to step out from their comfort zone and believed that their current handling approaches towards Building Information Modelling (BIM) Building Information Modelling (BIM) 2.1 Introduction As expressed in the Egan report (1998), the UK construction industry is a significant contributor to the domestic economy in the UK that it is simply too important to be overlooked. The construction process and its success are influenced by various factors and choosing the most effective investment to improve the construction process is a very important decision. Building Information Modelling has been said to represent a paradigm that will have comprehensive benefits brought to the construction industry (Eastman, 2009b). Popov et al. (2010) claimed that the growing diversity of disciplines, professionals, tasks, events in respect of the management during design and construction stages of projects, plus the more competitive cost and more intense deadlines with higher quality expectations as well as the need for enhancing technology are the driving force of information modelling in the construction industry. Building Information Modelling, or better known as BIM is not; strictly speaking a new technology as it has been developing and used by other industry sectors since 1950s i.e. the automotive and aero plane industries. These industries have been way ahead of the AEC industry as for the past 20 years, fully utilizing the available technology for their industries (Augustsson, 2007). Subsequently, this literature review will assess and evaluate the historic and current information in respect of Building Information Modelling to enable an understanding on the past development of BIM, the benefits that it could offer to our construction projects as well as identifying the barriers entailing for the full adoption of BIM among the contractors in the UK construction industry. 2.2 What is BIM? As defined by BIMForum:- â€Å"A building information model (BIM) is an object-oriented building development tool that utilizes 5-D modeling concepts, information technology and software interoperability to design, construct and operate a building project, as well as communicate its details† (BIMForum, 2007). One common understanding to describe BIM is the building development tool that creates a three dimensional (3D) geometric model with computer softwares. The model then can be used to assist the design, construction and operational process and also acting as a communication tool (BIMForum 2007). Nevertheless a 3D geometric model wouldnt be sufficient to answer the demanding construction requirements at present. A BIM model contains a high level of intelligence which not just limited to a three-dimensional geometric representation of the building, (GSA, 2007) but also includes 5D modelling where the 4th dimension is referring to time element whilst the 5th dimension is referring to cost. In addition, as indicated by BIMForum (2007), there might be further development that is inclusive of procurement application which is the 6D as well as the operational applications which is the 7D. In general, a building information model is a digital representation, â€Å"virtual† representati on of all the physical and functional characteristic of a building which also acts as a resource of information storage for the building which could be shared/used from the inception period and throughout the lifecycle of the building. 2.3 The past development and revolution of BIM Conventionally, constructing a building was merely the responsibility of the Architects and the Engineers, designing on papers and then the Contractors build it. Cyon Research (2003) stated that Construction projects have always been defined by various drawings and documents where at times might be in conflict with each other thus showing inconsistency. These inconsistencies are the typical issues that often aroused when the documents and drawings are maintained separately with different participants working on different or superseded documents. There will always be unanticipated field costs, delays and eventual lawsuits between various parties within a project team as a result of errors and omissions in paper based communication. According to Vinod Kumar (2009), the beginning of orthographic drawings and perspectives can be traced back as far as during the Renaissance era when Filippo Brunelleschi represented the plans in drawing format for Santa Maria del Fiore in Italy in order for the patrons to understand how the building would look like. Vinod Kumar (2009) further explains the evolution of systematic documentation from manual methods all the way till our presently available technology by dividing it into three phases: I phase Till early 1980s: Before 1980s the traditional way of creating design documents are through manually drawn lines representing building i.e. plans, sections, elevations and etc. II phase 1980s to Late 1990s: This was the period where major change took place from manual drafting towards computer aided drafting when computers were firstly introduce. There is more elaborated information as the complexity of buildings increased as well as more specialization in the design and construction process. Use of computers, especially for 2D drawings and reports are ground-breaking changes into the systematic Documentation. III phase Beginning of the 2K: With the buildings degree of complexity presently, the number of parties involved in the process of drawing production has also increased. In line with the development of technology there are also more introduction of more interrelated and integrated building system i.e. HVAC system, energy requirement and etc. The computer based technology has also been constantly updated to reduce errors that occur but nonetheless they are still merely the collections of manually created, non-intelligent lines and text. The diagram below shows the evolution from manual methods all the way till the introduction of new technologies. A previous study by Autodesk (2002) which correlates with Vinods statement, mentioned that in the early 1980s the Construction industry took one step forward when the architects began using PC based Computer Aided Design, CAD. It is said that the CAD system was adapted with ease by the Industry as it was initiated from the pin-bar drafting which the Industry was familiar with. Thus many construction documents and drawings were completed using CADD rather than being drafted manually on drawing boards. DWS files were then exchanged in replacement of paper drawings, from simple graphics to the information content on the building. The CAD files developed significantly, communicating the information on the building which plotted drawing couldnt. Following that Holzer (2009) also stated that in the late 70s and early 80s, CAD systems like RUCAPS was used where it operated in parametric environment enabling 2D information extracted from a 3D model. RUCAPS allowed multi user access and put f orward a new way in generating, distributing as well as retrieving building information which was different fromt he common drafting processes. Unfortunately the down side of this system was the high cost and slow speed of the system as well as its inability of producing more complex geometrical shapes. Nevertheless, some of the fundamental concept of RUCAPS can be found in the current BIM software such as Autodesks REVIT, Bentleys TRIFORMA, Gehry Techs DIGITAL PROJECT and etc. Nowadays, the use of BIM is very common within the manufacturing and aerospace industries where new products or product changes are modelled virtually for the assessment of design, performance and production. . We are also in the process of experiencing a similar revolution in the construction industry. BIM and other related technologies have emerged since the past decade and developing up till the present where they have been acknowledge as the platform for the design and construction of various projects (Shen, et.al, 2009). Nevertheless, FWCI (2009) argued that it is important to understand that BIM is not CAD+ or the â€Å"Son† of CAD as BIM functions in its own approach and discipline. BIM, acting as a single source entry for project team involves the process of generating, storing, managing, exchanging and sharing building information in an interoperable and reusable way. Generally a BIM system is a tool that enables users to integrate and reuse building information and domain knowledge through the lifecycle of a building Presently there are numerous BIM products on the market by various vendors. Autodesk Revit was considered as one of the leading BIM creation tools. Bentley Systems, Graphisoft, Vico software and Nementcheck are also currently very well-known in the market. They each provide various building model tools to design a building (Rosenberg 2006). With this technology, the information needed for a projects design, construction and operation are contained in a model digitally which is centralized and could be shared across all associated project stakeholders (COBRA, 2008). 2.4 Various understanding of BIM in the Industry At present there is a vast amount of information that is available in respect to the definition of premise of BIM. Holzer (2007) explained that even though the application of BIM becomes more accepted and common throughout the industry, but there has been a problem in agreeing the definition of BIM. The common definitions would be described as a method for project information management with the combination of non-geometry attributes with geometrical entities, or defined mostly by pointing out its capabilities for cost-control and to facilities management. Holzer (2007) continues to claim that because the term BIM is often used by vendors for their marketing strategies in order to promote their company software, the definition of BIM technology has become very confusing. On the other hand, Eastman et al (2008) has suggested that in order to deal with this confusion it is useful to describe modelling solutions that do not utilize BIM technology. This includes tools that create models containing only 3D data with no object attributes, models that do not utilize parametric intelligence, models composed of multiple 2D CAD reference files that must be combined to define the building as well as models that allow changes to dimensions in one view that are not automatically reflected in other views. Furthermore, another popular â€Å"talk about† issue within the industry is the multi dimension product models, the ability of BIM to provide multi dimensional application. (GSA 2007) has stated that 4D models represent 3D models plus time which include project phasing, construction scheduling whilst 5D models incorporate the costs elements. Nonetheless, Lee (2005) has identified the additional numbering of the dimension as â€Å"nD† modelling. Lee stated that nD modelling is an extension of the building information model that incorporates multi-aspects of design information required at each stage of the lifecycle of a building facility. On the other hand, in the year 2006, The Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) also published â€Å"The Contractors Guide to BIM† which touched on the issue in respect of the continuing usage of the numbering i.e. 6D, 7D, and etc has therefore acknowledged the extended application of the 3D tool as â€Å"XD† (AGC , 2006). This research is mainly focusing on the 3D models with incorporation of time (4D) and cost (5D) elements. 2.5 Benefits of BIM There are many obvious benefits that BIM could offer to various parties including the owners, planners, engineers, estimators, designers and etc. It is understood that different stakeholders would value BIM differently. They may share the same information but have different responsibilities and uses on the model. From a Contractors perspective, BIM brings essential value for enabling virtual construction of the structure within a single source file (Hardin, 2009). As quoted from the BIM 2009 Smart Report, â€Å"A model is Worth a Thousand Drawings†. Contractors are making use of the intelligent model for assisting them with various activities i.e. planning construction sequences, cost estimations and bidding, conflict resolution and visualization project demonstration for client and etc (Neeley, 2010). The incorporation of intelligent data improves the models construction and post-construction realities, which also enables the contractor to get closer to the world of the desig ner (Sage software 2008). The initial literature review has showed that costs are significantly reduced, time is saved and the quality improved. 2.5.1 Single source Model In conventional process, the Project Manager reviews the updated drawings and reflects any changes onto the schedule as the design progress. Many times the same information is entered into different program. Every repetition increases the probability of inconsistency and error occurrence. BIM on the other hand allow direct changes applied to the single model. As both designers and contractors have access to the model simultaneously, this corresponding process also enables them to reduce lead times which normally take place throughout the period of sending back-and-forth the documents. The collaborative environment contributes to a substantial time saving during pre construction. Extra coordination checks are also unnecessary because the information generated from the model will lead to fewer errors on site which normally is caused by inaccurate and uncoordinated information. In the case of any last minute design changes, addendums, clarifications and etc it could be altered and updat ed to the model automatically across the project team, from early design through completion (Hardin, 2009). These ensure that all parties are working with the latest information. With all the information contained within the BIM database it will definitely increase the efficiency between the Architect, Engineer as well as the Contractors. 2.5.2 The 3D Visualization Clash Detection The 3D visualisation capability of BIM models can be of great benefit as a means of testifying the workability and demonstrating aspects of the construction itself such as construction sequencing, logistics, access, storage and security (C3 System 2009). BIM allows for â€Å"building twice† which offers various benefits like improvement in Constructability, maintainability, cost estimate accuracy and etc. This reduces ambiguities before commencement of actual construction (Robert, 2005). The construction issues for layperson or non layperson are also made easier to understand as the 3D visualisation helps them to understand any constraints that the client had not made clear earlier, or were misunderstood (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). One of the major benefits which BIM could provide for contractors is clash detection. As identified by FWIC (2009), a hard clash is where more than one object is being designed to occupy the same space whilst a soft clash is where the objects in the design is too close to each other that there is no space for access or construction, or are too close that they have violated the building codes. The BIM system automatically detects and manages interferences which prevent possible delay or additional cost. The system could be set to run the check either the entire model or between certain parts of the model. 2.5.3 Construction Phasing (4D Simulation) Furthermore, one of the obvious BIM applications for improved time efficiency is construction planning. Hardin (2008) argued that the construction planning is one of the most important tasks and also one of the driving factors that determine the success of any projects. It is noted by Eastman et al (2008b) that Construction Planning and scheduling involves sequencing activities in space and time, procurement consideration, resources, spatial restrictions and etc. BIM is said to contribute in project planning solutions via the use of 4D simulation. Napier (2009) claimed that the conventional scheduling methods are labour intensive and is not easily understood by laypersons. BIM enables better communication and understanding how the schedule would impact site logistics as a result of the 4D construction phasing/planning tools that incorporate direct links to the design model, capturing spatial information which the traditional Gantt chart is unable to demonstrate. The 4D model incorpor ates time as added 4th dimension which enables the planner to visually plan and sequencing of construction activities with space and time consideration. Also, there might be specific materials and products selected from a potential range of refinements and substitutions that meet the project specification but may result in changes to some aspects of the design. As Neeley (2010) have stated, with the allowance of â€Å"what ifs†, a significant of cost, project risks and unnecessary waste could be saved by shifting the â€Å"try-and-error† process from construction site to the virtual environment on beforehand. Resource Allocation/Reducing Waste According to Egan (1998) in â€Å"Rethinking Construction†, within the construction industry almost 10% of materials are wasted and 30% of construction is rework. As mentioned by Articlesbased (2009) construction projects are very often planned based on resources availability as well as other external factors. With the 4D construction phasing/planning, the team members are able to understand the scope of work and the availability of various resources in order to optimize the resources and labour accordingly. In addition, Eastman (2008b) highlights that BIM is also accurate in providing the design model and material resources required for each segment of the work, it effectively assists in utilization of critical resources like labour, material and time during the building construction life cycle. With the improved monitoring of site logistics and the progress of project, the site management via BIM fosters just-in-time (JIT) of materials, plant/equipment and labours. Pre-fabrication Accuracy of design details are critical for determining the success of pre-fabrication, and a data-rich BIM model can have a positive impact and provide greater confidence on pre-fabrication. As BIM brings clarity towards a complex project, more contractors appreciate that BIM offers the advantage of effective coordination as the complexity level of project increases. The â€Å"Design to Build and Build to Design† concept improves accuracy for estimation and design specification for prefabricated elements thus reducing unnecessary wastage (BIMJOURNAL 2009). With greater confidence in the coordination process, many contractors are approaching more prefabrication options to help ease schedules. (BIM Smart Report, 2009) 2.5.4 Cost Estimates/schedule management From the costing aspect, Jernigan (2008) stated one of the main benefits provided by BIM is the accuracy in cost estimate during earlier stages. Conventionally, estimators have been relying on Excel spreadsheet to carry out their construction cost estimating (Autodesk, 2007), Eastman (2009b) then revealed that BIM include features for extraction and quantification of BIM component properties. By using a building information model instead of drawings; the takeoffs, counts, and measurements can be generated directly from the underlying model and the information can be linked to generate bills of materials, size and area estimations along with other related estimating information. Therefore the information is always consistent with the design and reduces the potential for human error or misunderstanding (Autodesk, 2007). This contributes to substantial time and cost saving as well as ensuring good quality of the BOQ. BIM offers the opportunity to develop more accurate cost estimates bas ed on actual elements (Hartman and Fischer 2008). Moreover, the linked cost information evolves in step with the design changes (Ashcraft, 2008). In addition, an indirect advantage that BIM could offered is the estimator would be given more extra time to bring in more value engineering, more time for risk evaluation and to more time to find any additional cost savings as the â€Å"technology† has taken up most of the grunt work from the estimator (Hague, No date).Using cost attributing features of the model to assess alternative design and construction schemes to enhance and improve the value engineering process; BIM certainly contributes in supporting the Contractor to present value for money to the Client. Neeley (2010) has claimed that the use of BIM and IPD (Integrated Project Delivery) is reducing project costs around 10%- 20% below construction costs compared to non BIM/IPD projects. 2.6 Case Studies No 1: One Island East, Hong Kong One of the popular examples of the actual Building Information Modeling Project that has been mentioned by various Authors in their research is One Island East Office Tower in Hong Kong which was developed by Swire Properties Limited. Together with the project BIM consultant, Gehry Technologies (GT) they began the process of working together to create a single, 3D electronic Building Information Model (Riese, 2006). The Project Details are summarized as follow: 2.6.1 Background Information The One Island East is a 308 meter high skyscraper with 59 stories of office space and two basement levels. The building has 70 floors in total which comprise of a sky lobby on 37th and 38th floors (Elkem Microsilika, 2009). It was Swires intention to achieve a high-quality design while improving construction time as well as cost savings by the use of collaborative, collocated work methods and integrated 3-D modeling tools. The initial objective was to save 10 percent on the cost with reduced time for construction (Shelden et al, 2008). The software tool chosen to create the BIM for this project is â€Å"Digital Project† with some of the benefits stated as follows: (Riese, 2006) Has automated clash detection and management Has a complete ME system routing tool. With built-in scripting function, enabling project requirements to be integrated for customization. Automated simultaneous file versioning and file sharing. Able to handle and manipulate large amounts of data Integrated with Primavera scheduling software with high interoperability 2.6.2 BIM Implementation (Pre-tender stage) BIM commenced after the schematic design phase. The office building has been pre-designed virtually using Digital Project by assembling up to 300.000 building components in a single master file. Almost all coordination issues were resolved using BIM. The design team, BIM consultant and Project Manager worked in one room for the first year. They also communicate with each other via a portal site for the BIM process. The DP software was capable of identifying geometric clashes and generates a list automatically. There were already several clashes and errors identified and resolved before tendering and construction. The DP tool also measured most of the quantities automatically which reduced the time and effort compared to manual take off. Also, the quantities were linked to the BIM which automatically updates when changes were made. 2.6.3 BIM Implementation (Tendering Stage) The model was provided to all tenderers which enabled them to have confirmation on the bill of quantities using the model without having to measure the quantities manually. As a result, tender process improved significantly with lower cost estimates and more accurate quantity takeoffs. 2.6.4 BIM Implementation (Post Tender Stage) Gammon Construction Limited, which was the contractor awarded for the project had full responsibility for the BIM model and began the development of highly accurate and detailed 3D BIM model for construction, ensuring that all 2D information would be firstly scrutinize in the 3D prototype before it went to the site. 2.6.5 BIM Implementation (Construction) During the construction period, the BIM model became the main visualization tool for the coordination of various project elements. There were full time modelers that assisted with the clashes identification and coordination issues where the design solutions were then incorporated into the model. A few subcontractors also participated in modeling their parts of work. 4D simulation was one of the main factors for the success of the OIE project. It was used extensively for improving construction sequence and managing risk. 2.6.6 Outcome There were more than 2000 clashes and errors were identified prior to bidding and construction stage, which resulted significant cost savings. The figure below is an example of a clash that has been detected between an electrical cable tra y and an air supply duct. Without BIM it wouldnt have been detected until the actual construction taken place which might potentially cause additional cost and time to the project. According to Shen et al.(2009), the geometric coordination off the design prior to construction is thought to achieve 10% cost savings whilst construction process modeling is thought to contribute further 20% cost savings on the construction. Gammon Construction has also reported that Construction Process Modeling saved the project at least 20 days. This project was awarded the American Institute of Architects 2008 BIM award for design/delivery process innovation. 2.7 Implementing BIM and the Potential Challenges From section 2.2 above it is demonstrated that BIM has brought numerous advantages and benefits to the industry. However there are also challenges and barriers that to be overcome before the full capability of BIM could be demonstrated and subsequently fully â€Å"enjoyed† by the industry stakeholders (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). In the very traditional and fragmented building industry, new technologies are not easily introduced. It should be noted that when a new technology is introduced, there will be a certain period of time in which the claims about the potential of the technology needs to be examined, tested and verified particularly the AEC industry which is known for the very long adoption periods of promising technologies (May et al. 2005; Salazar et al. 2006). Even though the technology of BIM is readily available and rapidly maturing but the adoption of BIM is much slower than anticipated (Fischer Kunz, 2006). Gillis (2008) made the criticism indicating that UK appears to be a more conservative and over protective country that demands proven effectiveness before considering adoption of new technology whilst Counties such as Norway, Sweden, and US attempts to proceed with new technology without 100% confirmation (Simon Gillis, 2008). As criticised by Prather (2007), most of the time, our professional would take the â€Å"wait-and-see† approach towards BIM. This is echoed by Safe software (2008) stating that our industry would mostly accept BIM only when the risk level has dropped and a clear return on investment is made known to the industry. Moreover, in these recessionary times, the money to spend on technology has got to have a good business case. The current UK industry inhibitors include contracts that has not promote working in collaboration, no external incentive for innovation, no motivation for parties to seek ways to deliver a better or quicker product and etc (Steve Dunwell, 2008). 2.7.1 Installation and operation Cost Eastman (2009) has highlighted one of the barriers to adopting BIM is the cost associated with the implementation. It is said that implementing new technology like BIM requires additional cost in respect of purchasing new software and hardware packages, training as well as changing the work processes and workflows. Also, if there are no technical expertises available within the organization, there will be a need to engage with external consultants to train employees prior to applying BIM within the organization which accounts for additional cost as well (Furneaux and Kivits 2008). Corresponding to what Eastman (2009) as well as Furneaux Kivits (2008) have said, a research done by Suermann et al. (2009) revealed that the whole installation of BIM for an organization is a costly plan when done at on one occasion, and even greater when done for several installations simultaneously for different projects. In addition, Suermann et al (2009) findings showed that there has been company which have had to increase their effort and cost allowance to do BIM due to the high learning curve. Apart from that, there is also an implication for procurement policy where consideration needs to be given to the additional funding for the development of BIM models in the first instance. The large size of BIM files will involve a different system for data sharing i.e. real time access to the BIM database between firms which are geographically distant and high speed internet connectivity will be essential (Kiviniemi et al., 2008 p.64). This would constitute extra cost for the operation of BIM. Furthermore, in order to reduce the risk of data corruption, sabotage, and loss; it is important to pay any indispensable cost associated to ensure data stability and security. 2.7.2 Embracing BIM throughout the entire supply chain Another apparent factor that has caused BIM taking the back seat is lack of commitment from the higher level of the supply chain. According to Oberle (2009), the transition to BIM requires support and commitment throughout the supply chain from top to down of an organization. In addition, The Crawley Schools PFI project in West Sussex has revealed the benefits which they have gained with the implementation of BIM but simultaneously also addressed one of their main barriers in implementing BIM was the reluctance of the supply chain in embracing this new technology, stating that some conservative individuals did not believe the benefits that BIM could offer thus were hesitant to undertake this new approach (Constructing Excellence, 2010). It is also noted that some Contractors that have too much existing workload might give the excuse that they dont have enough time to try out new technology. As quoted from Dunwell (2009), â€Å"Old habits die hard†. Most workers are reluctant to step out from their comfort zone and believed that their current handling approaches towards